In Old Icelandic texts, the presence of trees often symbolizes wisdom, justice, creation,
and protection (Kvilhaug 2013). In
Völuspá, the concept of a “world tree, or world ash,” is mentioned in stanza 19.1, linking
the kenning, Yggdrasill, to the concept of a tree as the centre of the Norse cosmos.
Ask veit ek standa,
heitir Yggdrasill,
hár baðmr, ausinn
hvíta auri;
þaðan koma doggvar
þærs í dala falla,
stendr æ yfir grœnn
Urðarbrunni.
(Kristjánsson and Ólason 295)
An ash I know that stands, Yggdrasill it’s called,
a tall tree, drenched with shining loam;
from there come the dews which fall in the valley,
green, it stands always over Urd’s well.
(Larrington 6)
In this stanza Yggdrasill is said to be the centre of the nine worlds in Norse Mythology
from its placement over Urd’s Well, where the Æsir gain their wisdom, and, as stated
in
Gylfaginning, is the “central, holy place of the Gods” (Sturluson 2005, Ch. 15). The fifteenth
chapter of
Gylfaginning is dedicated to describing the world ash, Yggdrasill, as central to the Æsir’s lives:
Askurinn er allra trjáa mestur og bestur. Limar hans dreifast um heim allan og standa
yfir himmi. Þrjár rætur trésins halda því upp og standa afar breitt. Ein er með ásum,
önnur með hrímþussum, þar sem forðum var Ginnungagap. Þriðja stendur yfir Niflheim
og undir þeirri rót er Hvergelmir. En Niðhöggur gnagar neðan rótina. En undir þeirri
rót er til hrímþussa horfir er Mímisbrunnur, er spekt og manvit er í fólgið, og heitir
sá Mímir er á brunninn. Hann er fuller af vísendum fyrir þvi að hann drekkur úr brunninum
úr Gjallarhorni. Þá kom Alfoður og beiddist eins drykkjar af brunninum. En hann lagði
auga sitt í veð. (Sturluson 2013, 165)
[The ash is the largest and the best of all trees. Its branches spread themselves
over
all the world, and it stands over the sky. Three roots support the tree and they are
spread very far apart. One is among the Æsir. A second is among the frost giants… The third reaches down to Niflheim… Under the root that goes to the frost giants is the Well of Mimir. Wisdom and intelligence
are hidden here… The third root of the ash is in heaven, and under that root is the very holy well
called the Well of Urd. There the gods have their place of judgement.] (Sturluson
2013, 165)
From this excerpt it is clear that the tree, specifically the idea of a world tree,
is crucial to understanding the cosmological geography of the Æsir, and therefore
it is important to our understanding of Norse Mythology as a whole. The crucial role
of Yggdrasill as supporting the Æsir, serving as a setting of the holy courts, supplying
wisdom beneath its roots, and connecting three main worlds of Norse Mythology, as
stated in
Gylfaginning, demonstrates the significance of the tree throughout Norse mythology. As Lotte Hedeager
states in her work
Iron Age Myth & Materiality, “Ásgarðr [is] the home of the gods, at the top of Yggdrasill, the undisputed centre
of the universe” (150–1). Hedeager’s statement is further supported by evidence found
in
Grímnismál, in which Yggdrasill is said to be the most important of all trees:
Askr Yggdrasils,
hann er œztr viða
en Skíðblaðnir skipa,
Óðinn ása
en jóa Sleipnir,
Bilrost brúa
en Bragi skálda,
Hábrók hauka
en hunda Garmr.
(Kristjánsson and Ólason 376–77)
Yggdrasill’s ash is the most pre-eminent of trees,
as is Skidbladnir of ships,
Odin of the Æsir, Sleipnir of horses,
Bifrost of bridges, Bragi of poets,
Habrok of hawks, and Garm of Dogs.
(Larrington 54)
Once again, the importance of Yggdrasill is reiterated. In comparison to other important
characters of Norse Mythology, such as Skíðblaðnir, Bragi, and even Óðinn the All-father
(Larrington 55), the figure of Yggdrasill is clearly stated as a fundamental aspect
of Norse Mythology,
without which the gods would have no centre in the nine worlds, and to which Norse
concepts of time, place, destiny, and death are all linked (Andrén 2005, 105–38).
Trees in Norse Mythology can be viewed through a more legendary, possibly even a more
historical, lens in
Völsunga Saga, and especially in the story of Barnstokkr. At the wedding of King Siggeirr and Signý
Völsungsdóttir, Óðinn, disguised as an old man dressed in tatters, plunges a sword
into Barnstokkr, a tree that stands in the hall of King Völsung (Byock 38).
Sá maðr er mönnum ókunnr at sýn. Sjá maðr hefir þess háttar búning, at hann hefir
heklu flekkótta yfir sér. Sá maðr var berfættr ok hafði knýtt línbrókum at beini.
Sá maðr hafði sverð i hendi ok gengr at barnstokkinum ok hött síðan á höfði. Hann
var hár mjök ok eldiligr ok einsýnn. Hann bregðr sverðinu ok stingr þvi í stokkinn,
svá at sverðit sökkr at hjöltum upp. (Jónsson 114)
A stranger to all, he was wearing a cloak of many colours; he was barefoot, and his
linen breeches are bound around his legs. This man had a sword in his hand and a hood
pulled down low over his head. He was hoary with age and one-eyed. He strides over
to [Barnstokkr], aims the sword and plunges it up to the hilt into the trunk. (Grimstad
83)
The presence of trees in halls and buildings in general is a somewhat rare occurrence
in Norse mythological texts, yet some examples exist in historical and archaeological evidence (see Ellis Davidson.)
In H. R. Ellis Davidson’s work, “The Sword at the Wedding,” the concept of Barnstokkr
as a
vårdträd is examined. Ellis Davidson recalls the wedding of Signý and King Siggeirr, noting
the significant placement of Barnstokkr in King Völsung’s hall as important to the
“luck and prosperity” of the family:
There seems little doubt that here we have an example of the ‘guardian tree’, such
as used to stand beside many a house in Sweden and Denmark, and which was associated
with the ‘luck’ of the family. The guardian tree usually stood beside the house, but
there are some cases from the British Isles where the tree was inside and even formed
part of the house itself. (4)
Although the idea of guardian trees having a presence in and around homes is a much
more recent phenomenon in comparison to ancient textual examples of the centrality
of world trees (Andrén 2014, 37), Ellis Davidson states that Barnstokkr would have
served as a guardian tree for the
Völsungar and that Barnstokkr, in translation, refers to “child-trunk,” stating that
this tree likely would have been clutched by women for good luck as
they gave birth (4). Ellis Davidson also states that the presence of Barnstokkr in
the family’s hall
would have guaranteed them prosperity in the form of male offspring, and in the case
of the guardian tree being destroyed, the family would cease to be protected (4–5).
Although the story of Barnstokkr is different than that of Yggdrasill, there are
clear connections between the two trees. Barnstokkr’s role in
Völsunga Saga bridges the gap between the supernatural and the tangible in the Norse universe.
When Barnstokkr is examined alongside Yggdrasill, they both contribute significant
evidence for the theme of trees as central to Scandinavian history.
Now that the importance of trees in Norse mythology and legend has been established,
the archaeological evidence of trees in a Norse context can be examined. Although
little archaeological evidence of ancient trees and timber remain outside of arid
environments, and therefore even less in Scandinavia, there are instances of surviving
trees, tree trunks, stone structures, and runes that have been preserved that support
the idea of trees as vital to understanding medieval Norse culture. One particularly
interesting archaeological example can be found at the Romanesque church at Frösö,
in Jämtland, Sweden (See figure 8 in Andrén 2014, 37). Archaeological excavation
found that the root from a Viking-age birch tree rests
beneath this Christian Church, supporting the common theory of cosmological continuity
(Andrén 2014, 37), which upholds the idea that important aspects of Norse myth and
legend were carried
over and applied to belief systems during the transition to Christianity in the medieval
period (Cusack 137; see parallels between Yggdrasill and the Crucified Cross on page
142 and trees according
to “judgement, law, and fate” on pages 147-70). It is logical, therefore, that the
tree and what it symbolizes
would have been included instead of removed in the construction of this Christian
church.
Another collection of archaeological examples that can be used in understanding the
importance of trees in Norse myth and culture are the instances of three-pointed stone
settings at Bjärsgård in Skåne, the island of Öland, and at Herresta, Odensala, and
Uppland in Sweden (Andrén 2014, 37-52). At these locations there are collections
of large stones arranged in a “tricorn” shape. This distinct shape represents the
three roots of the world ash, Yggdrasill
(Andrén 2014, 37-52). At sites similar to Bjärsgård and Öland, there is archaeological
evidence of post
hole remains at the centre of each site, where a tall piece of timber would have stood
upright to symbolize the trunk of Yggdrasill, with its stone roots spreading out below
it (Andrén 2014, 37-52). These posts represent the idea of a “world support, functioning
as a centre for judgement, rulership, and as a water source” (Cusack 147-70). As Carole
M. Cusack examines in her work, The Sacred Tree, Adam of Bremen, in his description of the temple at Uppsala (208), stated the sacred
grove had an accompanying water source alongside it (Cusack 137). The post holes
found at sites like those at Bjärsgård can be conjectured to embody
representations of larger sacred gathering sites, like at the temple in Uppsala.
At the partially destroyed Herresta site, there is a large monolith that would have
stood in the centre of the stone setting to represent Yggdrasill’s trunk instead of
a wooden post (Andrén 2014, 37-52). There are many examples of these three pointed
stone settings throughout Scandinavia,
with an exceptional site found on Karmøy, Norway, where a Christian church was likely
erected on top of a large tricorn, with two existing monolith “trunks” still standing
upright in the churchyard (Andrén 2014, 37-52). The site on Karmøy can also be used
to explore the idea of cosmological continuity,
as mentioned in the previous paragraph, from an archaeological perspective. The construction
of lone-standing tricorns like those at Bjärsgård, Öland, and Herresta by Norse people
clearly indicates the communal idea of the tree was important, especially the figure
of Yggdrasill. One archaeological instance that is important to mention is the runestone
fragment at Österfärnebo, Sweden. This fragment, as described by Marjolein Stern in
her work “Sigurðr Fáfnisbani as Commemorative Motif,” depicts the popular legend of
Sigurðr, the slayer of Fáfnir (see Jónsson; Byock). This specific stone fragment shows “Sigurðr with rings and cross/tree, and Sigrdrífa/Brynhildr
with horn,” flanked by other figures with spears or sticks, and all enveloped in a
tree symbol
with roots, possibly symbolic of the dragon in the Sigurðr story (Stern 898-99).
The cross/tree figure that Stern interprets as especially significant clearly resembles
tree imagery and adds to understanding the importance of trees in Norse mythology
and legend. The example of a cross and a tree being combined on this rune stone also
connects back to the theory of cosmological continuity and the important aspects of
Old Norse myth being adapted by Christianity during religious transition (Stern 898-99). As stated in Jörn Staecker´s article, “Heroes, Kings, and Gods,” the Sigurðr story
of the Völsunga Saga “played an important role in the transitional phase between paganism and Christianity,
a mediator between the old heritage and the new way of thinking” (Staecker 366). The
gradual changeover from Norse religion to Christianity required the assimilation
of features from both religions to create a comprehensible understanding of Christianity
for newcomers that had been socialized in a complex Norse environment (Staecker 366).
Therefore, it is possible that the symbols of trees mixed with dragons, combined
with images of the cross and Christ-like representations of Sigurðr on the rune stones
at Österfärnebo, embody the importance of the tree being included in the transition
from Norse paganism to Christianity (Staecker 366).
Archaeological evidence of the guardian tree in Scandinavia is by no means limited
to the aforementioned examples of ancient monoliths, stone carvings, and preserved
tree remnants. There are instances of still-standing guardian trees maintaining a
presence in modern households in current day Scandinavia:
A familiar sight in Iceland, outside the few towns, is a lone-standing farmhouse with
a solitary tree growing right up against it. These trees must be a twentieth-century
echo of the traditional guardian tree, object of veneration outside farmstead and
shrine alike in pre-Christian Northern Europe. The first and greatest of such trees
was Yggdrasil. (Crossley-Holland 182)
Here, in Crossley-Holland’s description of modern day guardian trees existing in Iceland,
the planting of single trees near homes showcases the importance of Yggdrasill’s presence
in a family and as a religious icon.
The concept of
vårdträd, as seen throughout farmsteads in Sweden and known as
trunte in Norway, is a surviving example of the Scandinavian tradition of planting trees
around a familial dwelling to invoke the cosmic power of Yggdrasill, bringing fertility,
unity, and prosperity to the family. The presence of a
vårdträd or
trunte close to a house or barn would have served as a revered, sacred part of the homestead,
providing a direct link between physical trees and the ideological ideal of Yggdrasill
(Forell Hulmes 2). The guardian tree survives in Scandinavia, originating in Viking
Age society and
persisting into the current landscape:
A special tradition that is shared by many Scandinavians is the planting or the knowing
of a special tree in Swedish called a ‘Vårdträd’, and in Norwegian a ‘Tuntre’; a sacred
tree planted in the centre of the yard on a family farm that reflects an intimacy
with place. The caring for the tree demonstrates respect for ancestors’ spirits that
were/are believed to reside in the tree, and is a moral reminder of caring for the
farm or place where one lives. (Forell Hulmes 2)
By examining past and present examples of the presence of trees in Scandinavia, it
can be determined that guardian trees have always had a central role in the home
(Forell Hulmes 2). Just as in the instance of the wedding feast at King Völsung’s
hall, where all the
guests would have gathered around Barnstokkr, the guardian tree in the non-legendary
medieval Scandinavian household would have been a central element providing protection
and prosperity to a family, bringing the familial unit together (Ellis Davidson 4-5).
Although there is no explicit archaeological excavation evidence of settlements
existing directly around the stone structures like those at Bjärsgård, Öland, Herresta,
and Karmøy, they would have brought the community together through their initial construction
and ritualistic importance. The role of the tree as central to non-mythological life is represented in the Norse
mythological cosmos by Yggdrasill. Parallel to this, in Scandinavian communities,
the idea of the world tree maintaining a sacred presence in community and personal
life is represented by the planting and care of a
vårdträd. Placed near homesteads, for Scandinavian peoples these trees symbolize a desire
to be in contact with what was represented in Norse religion through the figure of
Yggdrasill. As the centre of the Norse cosmos (Hedeager 150-1), Yggdrasill represents
the foundation that holds the Norse cosmos together, with
its roots travelling to the land of the Frost Giants, Niflheimr, and Ásgarðr, connecting
the mythological world (Lindow) just as timber posts, stone monoliths, and
vårdträd and
trunte would have connected Ancient Norse communities, and still do, in the case of examples
that survive today.
The textual evidence of trees as important symbols in Norse mythology and legend can
be combined with existing archaeological evidence to explain the theme of trees as
central to both Old Norse literature and culture. By textually examining the presence
of Yggdrasill as the centre of the mythological Norse cosmos and the importance of
trees like Barnstokkr in guardianship roles, and combining this analysis with the
surviving archaeological evidence of Norse peoples using trees in the construction
of churches, representing trees in ancient stone structures, depicting trees on rune
stones, and planting the vårdträd, the significance of the tree to Old Norse life is clear. As a symbol, the tree,
in its metaphorical and archaeological forms, is a recurring and longstanding theme
central to the understanding of Norse mythology as a whole. The use of this interpretation,
combining the facts seen in the literary and the archaeological examples, is beneficial
to our modern understanding of ancient Scandinavian peoples on the whole. Reading
their stories, both mythological and legendary, can be used to better understand the
way they thought, and the interpretation of the archaeological remains left behind
can be used to make a connection to the physical lives Scandinavian peoples lived
thousands of years ago. When studied together, a more complete and integrative interpretation
of medieval Scandinavian culture is possible.